A Marxist Reading of Saadallah Wannous’s Play: “The King is the King”
A Marxist Reading of Saadallah Wannous’s Play:
“The King is the King”.
“ الملك قراءة ماركسية لمسرحية سعد الله ونوس “الملك هو
Hiba Mohammad Al Hajj Ali
هبة محمد الحاج علي
تاريخ الاستلام 17/7/2024 تاريخ القبول 31/7/2024
Abstract:
This article aims to present a Marxist reading of Saadallah Wannous’s play “The King is the King”. This article aims to reveal the sociopolitical aspects in Wannous’s Theatre of Politicization and to discuss the struggle between classes which is presented in this play, from a Marxist point of view.
Key terms: Marxism, struggle between classes, Social injustice oppression, authority, unity.
ملخص :
الدّراسة تقدّم قراءة تحليليّة ماركسيّة لمسرحية مختارة لسعدالله ونوس. المسرحية موضوع الدّراسة الحالية هي بعنوان: “الملك هو الملك”. وهي تهدف الى إظهار البُعد الاجتماعيّ والسّياسيّ في مسرح سعد الله ونوس من خلال استعمال النّظريّة الماركسيّة، لإبراز الاختلاف الطّبقيّ والصّراعات الحاصلة في ما بينها، والتي تؤدّي الى تشكيل المجتمع على صورة هذا الاختلاف والأنظمة السّياسيّة التي تحكمه.
- Introduction:
This article aims to present a Marxist reading of Saadallah Wannous’s play The King is the King, which belongs to his Theatre of Politicization. The purpose of this article is to reveal that the struggle between classes is the main reason behind the divisions in the societies and the formation of the ruling political regimes in the Arab world. Moreover, this article reveals that Saadallah Wannous’s Theatre of Politicization is a vital and practical medium which transformed the theatre from its theoretical state to a more practical one. Also, this article aims to shed light on an important fact which is, the importance of Saadallah Wannous’s plays, especially those which belong to the Theatre of Politicization, because they are considered more than literary texts. They are historical documents that documented the modern Arab history and the form of the ruling political regimes in the Arab countries during a certain specific period of time which extended from the 1960s to the 1990s.
Before delving deeper into the prevailing themes and the symbols in the selected play to be read from a Marxist lens, a general background about Saadallah Wannous and his Theatre of Politicization will be presented, then, a short definition of Marxism will be also presented in order to make the Marxist reading of the play clearer.
1.1 Who is Saadallah Wannous and what is his Theatre of Politicization?
Saadallah Wannous is a Syrian playwright who was born in the remote Syrian village Hussein-al- bahr. He studied journalism in Cairo, then he traveled to Paris to continue his studies and to learn more about theatre. In Europe, Saadallah Wannous was exposed to the trend philosophical theories at that time such as Existentialism and the Absurd. At the same time, Wannous was highly influenced by Socialism. A theory which was flourishing at that time during the sixties, in the Arab world and in many other countries all over the world such as Soviet Union. Since his early beginning, Saadallah Wannous was highly concerned about the main cases of the Arab world. He was aware of the vices that prevail the Arab countries and he sought to find solutions through his theatre. Wannous was influenced by the issues of his country and he considered that his theatre could play a main role in making a change in the Arab world. Based on this belief, Wannous sought to build a theatre which is different from the existing political theatre in the Arab world, He believed that the Arab world is in need for a theatre which is able to raise awareness of the audience and to make them able to analyze better the main cases of the Arab world. According to Wannous, people should be more aware of the social and political issues in their country in order to be able to make an action and to revolt against the oppression and the cruelty they are subjected to from the ruling political regimes and from the Israeli occupation. Katrina Beskova, a literary critic and a scholar in Slovak Academy of sciences, institute of Oriental Studies, states, “Wannous hoped to initiate a debate that would stimulate the audience to express freely their attitudes towards what was happening on the stage and to question all that was being said not only during the performance but in real life as well” (Beskova, 2015, p.219).
Moreover, Saadallah Wannous considered that the challenges in the modern Arab society are many, since new ideologies are now invading the Arab world such as Globalization and Imperialism. Both ideologies, which according to Wannous will lead to more destruction and chaos if they occupied the Arab world.
Many are the reasons which led to the birth of Saadallah Wannous’s project, Theatre of Politicization, in 1968. One of the main reasons is, Wannous’s great belief that theatre is a main medium to make a change in any community, he considered that theatre is a main indication to the progress of the nation and the level of its culture. Moreover, Wannous was first inspired by his village and the peasants of his village who were able to rebel against Feudalism and to fight fiercely until they regained their lands and their freedom. They were the first and primitive example on rebelling against cruelty. Then comes his early Marxist belief, which accompanied him until the end of his theatrical journey and it was reflected in his belief in Socialism as a suitable ideology for the Arab world, since it is another face of Marxism. Moreover, Wannous was influenced by certain Western theatrical schools such as Peter Weiss, Artauld and Bertolt Brecht. And he was influenced by many committed writers throughout the world, especially those who were advocates of freedom, liberty of people and those who wrote to liberate people from their fears and tensions, such as Frantz Fanon. Above all the mentioned reasons, Saadallah Wannous was influenced by the social and the political events which took place in the Arab world in the period extended from 1960s and 1990s, a turbulent period in the Arab history which left a great impact on Wannous, especially certain political events, such as Al- Naksa in 1967 and the Israeli invasion to Beirut and south Lebanon in the early 80s. In addition to, his continuous concern about the sociopolitical issues of the Arab countries especially his mother country Syria, where he was aware of all the oppression, cruelty and the discrimination between classes, which people were subjected to in the Arab societies. Throughout his journey, Wannous sought to make a change in the society through his Theatre of Politicization. The difference between his theatre and the traditional political theatre, is that his theatre aims to invoke the audience to share in the theatrical performance by making them more aware about the situations in their country and to become able to make a change and to revolt against the statuesque in their countries. Assad Al Saleh asserts, “The Theatre of Politicization defines the works that Wannous published in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This political stage is devoted to provoking the spectator, while showing her/him the reality that they do not see in the public sphere, that is occupied almost exclusively by the coercive Arab regimes and their media, cultural and mass-indoctrination systems of control” (Al-Saleh, 2019, p.199).
In order to achieve his aim, Saadallah Wannous presented several plays which were classified under the umbrella of Theatre of Politicization. These plays present the cruelty and oppression which people are subjected to in the Arab countries in a very unique style, since he follows the techniques of Bertolt Brecht in making the theatre a medium to revolt. He also uses history and symbolism to convey his themes. Moreover, he presents shocking scenes in his plays to make the required effect on his audience and to stir the stagnant conformity in the Arab theatre. Among these plays there is the selected play in this article, which will be read from a Marxist lens to reveal the differences between classes which lead to a severe struggle and make the gap between the ruling regimes and the common very wide. In order to analyze Wannous’s play, a brief definition of Marxism will be presented, to make the reason behind choosing this literary theory clear and reveal the relation between Marxism and the prevalent themes in this play
1.2 What is Marxism?
Marxism is a philosophy that tried to interpret the world around us and the society we live in. It is a social, political and economic philosophy named after the 19th century philosopher Karl Marx. According to Marxism, society progresses through the struggle between opposing forces. This struggle between the opposing classes is the cause or the main reason behind social transformations. Class struggle originates out of the exploitation of one class by another throughout history. Manuel Campos maintains, “Society progresses through the struggle between opposing forces. It is this struggle between opposing classes that results in social transformations. History progresses through this class struggle, class struggle originates out of the exploitation of one class by another through history” (Campos, 2023, p.4 ).
The examples of the class exploitation are many throughout history. During the Feudal period, the struggle was between the feudal lords and the peasants. In the industrial age, the struggle was between the capitalist class (the bourgeois) and the industrial working class (the proletariat). In a capitalist system, the proletariat is always in conflict with the capitalist class.
According to Marx, this confrontation between classes will finally result in replacing the system with Socialism. Karl Marx’s studies have provided a basis for much of socialist theory. Marxism aims to revolutionize the concepts of work by creating a classless society built on control and ownership of the means of production. In Marx’s thought, it is the subordinate class (the proletariat), that must achieve class consciousness. The bourgeoisie is already aware of its position and power in the society. This means that the working class must realize that they are being exploited not only as individuals, but also as a class. This is one of the main reasons why did the researcher choose Marxism as a main theory to analyze Wannous’s play. The realization of this act of exploitation that they are subjected to, will lead to class consciousness. This level of consciousness is what Saadallah Wannous aimed to achieve through his Theatre of Politicization.
To understand better the politics of how Marxist ideology works within society, and to learn more about the idea of exploitation of one class to the other, one can refer to the ideas of another Marxist theorist, Antonio Gramsci, the founder of the Italian communist party, who was a politician, a political thinker, and a philosopher. He was also known as an original thinker among Marxist scholars. Gramsci considers that hegemony is the domination of a particular section of the society by the powerful classes. It is the moral and intellectual leadership of the upper class in a particular society. Arjun Namdevro Khobragade maintains, “The term hegemony is primarily used to mean dominance with consent. A dominant class within any given society enjoys its dominance. Chiefly through the exercise of hegemony that signifies an ideological dominance rather than a physical dominance” (Khobragade, 2023, p. 3).
To add more illustration, Marxist criticism prioritizes three fundamental concepts:
- Class struggle
- The alienation of the individual under capitalism
- The relationship between a society’s economic base and the cultural superstructure. Angela Edward-Mangione mantains, “Critics using this framework analyze literature and other cultural forms through the lens of Marxist theory that includes an exploration of how economic and social structure influence ideology and culture” (Edrward-Mangoine, 2023, p. 3). Mangoine adds, “Marxist criticism breaks down texts and social structures using foundational concepts like class, alienation, base and superstructure” (Edward-Mangoine, 2023, p.1).
Each one of these concepts could be applied to analyze Saadallah Wannous’s plays that belong to his Theatre of Politicization. The first one is class struggle, this is considered the main concept that is presented in all of Wannous’s plays, and especially in The King is the King. In this play, struggle arises as the first, very clear concept, whether struggle between the king and the common, between the rich and the poor, or between the bourgeois and the proletariat. The other two concepts are also clear in almost all Wannous’s plays.
Marxist literary criticism is valuable because it enables readers to investigate the role of class divisions in the plot of a literary text. In an article about Marxist theory in literature, Hasa maintains, “In Marxist literary criticism, literary works are viewed as a reflection of the social institutions from that they originate. In fact, the work itself is considered as a social institution that has a specific ideological function based on the ideology and the background of the writer” (Hasa, 2016, p.1). Hasa adds, “Marxist criticism pays special attention to the division of class, class struggle, oppression and political background of the story” (Hasa, 2016, p.1).
Based on this fact, this article presents a Marxist reading of Saadallah Wannous’s play, The King is the King, in order to analyze the prevailing themes in Wannous’s Theatre of Politicization, and how it contribute to the sociopolitical aspects in the Arab world.
1.3 The King is the King:
This play is considered one of Saadallah Wannous’s masterpieces, it belongs to his Theatre of Politicization. In this play, Wannous uses history in order to criticize the political regimes in the Arab world without being subjected to censorship. This play presents the story of a king who got bored one day and decided to disguise and have a walk among the common. In the market, the king hears the wishes of a man from the common, who wants to be the king for one day. The king likes the idea, and since he is seeking fun and entertainment, he orders the guards to bring this man to his castle and prepare him to be the king. The climax in the play happens when the king is changed and a man from the common, Abo Azza, wears the crown and nobody in the castle recognizes the change, even his wife and his closest friends.
This play is highly symbolic, it criticizes the totalitarian cruel regimes in the Arab world, where the changes in the head of authority, not necessarily indicates a real change in the political regime because the ruling party is still the same and the practices will remain the same. In this play, Saadallah Wannous mentions his famous slogan “Give me a gown and a crown, and I will give you a king”. As if he wants to say that kings (leaders) in the Arab world are disguised and hidden behind the title and their cruel and oppressive practices. He also wants to say that changing the king or the leader, doesn’t necessarily mean a real change in the country because the political regime is still the same. Moreover, in this play, Wannous criticizes the head of the pyramid of authority represented by the king and the oppression he practices on the common.
According to Marxism, this play reveals that the Arab world is suffering because of the cruelty common people (the Proletariat) are subjected to from the ruling class (the king or the tools of the political regime). This oppression which the dominant class applies on the common, shows the gap or the gap between the classes. This is one of the main concepts in the Marxist theory.
During the events of this play, the reader is introduced to two main characters in the play, who play a central role in the events of the play. “Obeid” and “Zahed”, are both disguised as beggars, while it seems that they are plotting action against the regime. Their disguise is one of the major symbols and it apparently serves to hide their escape the scrutiny of regime informants. Disguise in Wannous’s plays has an important role because it hides several political messages. In the play, Obeid and Zahed appear while they are talking about a change that should take place in the country and that there is a collective feeling of disappointment that occupies the country, this feeling should be translated into action. They consider that a revolution that will soon take place, and it should abolish the existing political regime and build a new system where there are no differences and gaps between people. All people, should become equal again, as they were once, when they were living peacefully without a king. This concept is clearly reflected in Obeid’s words in one of the main scenes in The King is the King when he says,
“Once upon a time, there was a group of people who were living a simple and quite life, like a song or an anthem. All people were equal as free individuals and not as slaves. They were all working in their common land as one hand together. And they were all sharing the profits as family members. They eat the same food and wear the clothes that they need only” (Wannous, 2011, p.53).
Obeid’s speech is a key in the play, for it summarizes the main theme that Saadallah Wannous wants to present to the audience. It also shows the Socialist-Marxist influence on his thought. To illustrate, he talks about the relationship between the workers and the emergence of the idea of the owner, referring back to the idea of land owners and Feudalism that was spread during the 19th century. Moreover, in his words Obeid presents certain Marxist ethics related to the relationship between the rulers and the common and the differences between social classes. Moreover, this quotation reveals the divisions between classes in the Arab world. Obeid and Zahed belong to the common class and when Obeid talks about those times when all people were equal, this reveals the struggle between classes and the discrimination and oppression that common people are subjected to. Moreover, Obeid indicates that they were living peacefully until a man came and put himself as a king, then their life changed. Which means that the appearance of the existing political ruling regime is the reason behind their misery because of the cruelty and fear they are suffering from. From a Marxist point of view, this quotation indicates Wannous’s belief that people’s situation was much better when they were all equal and they all belonged to the same class. This also shows Saadallah Wannous’s deep belief that Socialism is a main ideology which should be applied in the Arab world, in order to maintain social justice and peace among people. In fact, Wannous throughout his life believed that, Socialism is the solution for all the problems of the Arab communities. Manuel Campos (2023) maintains that, “Marxism aims to revolutionize the concept of work by creating a classless society built on control and ownership of the means of production. In such a society, the means of production are possessed in common by all people rather than bring owned by an elite ruling class”. (Campos, 2023, p.2)
When Obeid talks about the group of people who were homogeneous wearing the same clothes and eating the same food, their life was still pure and beautiful. This life changed when the system of classes appeared and when the owner sat himself as a king among all the people. Wannous indicates that people’s life was much better when they shared everything and when they were all the same without social or economic differences, and he states that disguise is a major part of this change that took place in their life.
People resort to disguise to play a role imposed on them. Obeid’s words could be referred to the major Marxist belief, that a classless society is the only mean for achieving justice and peace in any community. Manuel Campos (2023) maintains that, Marxists believe that at birth people are equal, but their environments begin to shape their realities. This state of Haves and Have-not work emerges from this, with the Haves controlling the factors of production while the Have-not work in production to the benefit of the Haves. (Campos, 2023, p.5)
The remarkable idea in this controversial quotation is that when Obeid tells Azza, the daughter of the newly crowned king, that this system of disguise started once but it will never last forever, and it will change one day.
This play presents an ironic image about the game of disguise between the rulers and the common. As Obeid says, “Some disguised to rule and control while others were obliged to disguise in order to serve and obey and to be ruled unjustly” (Wannous, 2011, p. 53). The game of disguise therefore, in this play is meant to analyze the political structure in the Arab regimes.
Al-Alkam maintains, “It is a disguise game to analyze power structure in the royal and disguise systems” (Al-Alkam, 2000, p. 55).
The fifth scene in this play The King is the King presents a crucial and very important development, when Zahed and Obeid, the two rebellious characters in the play, appear on the front of the stage to address the audience directly, about crucial moments that will take place in the country soon. That is a moment that all the common people are waiting for to get rid of the cruelty and the misery they live in:
-Obeid: “We should be ready for that moment, not late or soon”
-Zahed: “Is not this moment soon?”
-Obeid: “It is not far anyway” (Wannous, 2011, p.88-89)
Another time, a Marxist reading of the important part of the play can make Wannous’s political message clearer. When all the characters gather on the stage; they take off their clothes. In effect, they take off their disguise to reveal their identity and to talk to the audience in the voice of reality. They altogether utter the same words in one voice emphasizing the importance of this quotation:
“History talks about people who got outraged by cruelty and misery, so they slayed their king and ate him; they ate him. At first, they felt pain and vomited. Later, they felt better and they all become the same” (Wannous, 2o11, p.110–111).
Obeid’s words here indicate that peace cannot exist until all the differences between classes are destroyed. And it reveals the Marxist main concept which is the inevitability of destroying the existing regime through a revolution. This revolution will be led by the working class (the proletariat), they are the ones who will lead this revolution, to destroy the cruel regime and build a new one, where all people are equal and they share all the wealth and the means of production, with a special indication to Socialism. Socialism is the political ideology which the Marxists suggest that it could be applied before reaching to a full communist regime. Socialism is the political ideology which paves the way for communism. At the end all these ideologies are derivatives of Marxism.
Obeid’s important quotation could be read form more than one Marxist level. In addition to the idea of the revolution which will be led by the working class, there is the idea of unity among the working class. According to Marxism, the working or the exploitative class should be aware of the oppression and the exploitation they are subjected to. Moreover, they should be unified in order to face the oppression they are suffering from. In fact, a deep Marxist reading of the play, indicates that Wannous’s suggestion could be referred to his belief that the unity of the common people and their strength could be one of the methods to defend their rights, since the Arab communities are ruled by cruel regimes and the authority in the Arab world in certain countries is exclusively in the hands of few who own money and power.
According to Marxism, the unity of the common and the working classes make them stronger and able to make their voices heard. Therefore, unity appeared as a major theme according to the Marxist theory and it was confirmed by Wannous more than once in his plays, in addition to the other prevailing themes, such as class struggle and the dominance of one class over the other. In addition to the concept of unity among the working class, there is another idea which is, the revolution that is expected to take place in The king is the King and it is a main Marxist concept. From a Marxist point of view, the continuous oppression that people are subjected to for a long time will eventually lead to a revolution. Thomas Brock confirms, “The inherent inequalities and exploitative economic relationships between these two classes will lead to a revolution in that the working class rebels against the bourgeoisie, takes control of the means of production and abolishes capitalism” (Brock, 2024, P.4). This concept could be the base for the prediction presented more than once in Wannous’s plays. Saadallah Wannous predicted in more than one play that oppression imposed from the dominant class on the working class, will eventually lead to a revolution. Wannous always reveals that the characters who belong to the oppressed class confessed that this kind of cruelty and oppression will lead to a revolution and bloodshed. For example, in The King is the King, Obeid the rebellious character in this play claims at the end of the play that there will come a day when people will kill their king and eat him, and they will live peacefully because they will all become equal again.
The third concept of Marxism that could be applied to his play The king is the King is the base and the superstructure. This superstructure includes the social institutions such as systems of law, morality, education, and their related ideologies; these institutions are usually the ones that shape and are shaped by the base. The superstructure and the base are interrelated. This concept could be read in the religious authority in The King is the King represented by the character of Al Shiekh Taha, this religious figure who used to be completely loyal to the previous King, then, when the king changed and came Abo Azza, the man from the common to substitute him. Al-Shiekh became loyal to this king, which means that Al-Shiekh is loyal to the dominant political regime and not to the king himself. This cleric is featured as an imposter in this play, who sells his religion and he disguises behind his beard and pious appearance, whereas in reality, he is ready to sell his religious beliefs for the sake of money and power. This Shiekh who represents the religious authority will always be loyal to the political authority, no matter whom the king or the head of the pyramid is. What is most important is to be loyal to the political regime which is dominant and powerful.
In conclusion, Marxism is the most suitable literary theory to be used in order to read and analyze Saadallah Wannous’s plays especially the one discussed in this article. Marxism aims to study the socioeconomic relationships in the society, these relationships are based on the struggle between classes. This class struggle is the main concept in the majority of Wannous’s plays, especially in The king is the King. When he presents this struggle in his plays, Saadallah Wannous wants to make his audience more aware of this struggle and to know to which class they belong. Eventually, when people become aware of the class they belong to, especially the proletariat, they will become aware of the exploitation and the dominance they are subjected to. The dominant class in Wannous’s plays is usually the ruling class that he represented either as the kings or the rulers or their tools, such as the case in The King is the King.
Finally, Saadallah Wannous is a playwright who presented controversial and impressive plays which they touch the audience’s life directly because they discuss real topics. Moreover, he puts the audience in direct confrontation with the most crucial and sensitive issues of their life. He aims through the topics he presents to raise people’s awareness and to motivate them to share in the political and social change in their countries and to stop accepting their situations as they are.
Wannous aimed through his theatre to elucidate the social and political conflicts between classes for his audience. He considered that this clarity will help individuals become more aware and conscious, ultimately enabling them to take action. For Wannous, the action that people should undertake is a revolution.
References:
Al-Saleh, A. (2019). Approaching Saadallah Wannous’s Drama: The Manifestos for a New Arab Theatre. Alif, (39), 190-227.
Beskova, K. (2015). Saadallah Wannous and the Theatre of Politicization. Asian and African Studies, 24(2), 211-232.
Campos, M. (2023). Marxism Literary Criticism.
Edward-Mangione, A. (2023). Marxist Criticism. Hillsborough Community College. Retrieved from https://writing commons.org/section/research-methods/textual-methods/literary-criticism/Marxist-criticism/
Hasa. (2016). How to Apply Marxism to Literature?
Investopedia Team. (2024). [Review of Marxism: What it is and Comparison to Communism, Socialism, and Capitalism, by T.Brock]. Retrieved from http://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marxism.asp
Khobragade, A.N. (2023). Marxism and its Impact on Literature. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 5(1), 1-4.
-المصادر والمراجع العربية :
-العلقم، ص ( 2000). المسرح السياسي عند سعد الله ونوس، المؤسّسة العربيّة للدّراسات والنّشر.
– ونوس، س ( 2011). الملك هو الملك ( السّادسة). بيروت، لبنان، دار الآداب.
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